Abstract
Long‑term field experiments in the United States have provided robust data comparing the economics of organic and conventional farming systems. This review synthesizes results from the Rodale Institute Farming Systems Trial (FST) in Pennsylvania, the Variable Input Crop Management Systems (VICMS) experiment in Minnesota, the Wisconsin Integrated Cropping Systems Trial (WICST), the Long-Term Agroecological Research (LTAR) trial in Iowa, the USDA-ARS Farming Systems Project (FSP) in Maryland, and the Sustainable Agriculture Farming Systems (SAFS) experiment in California. Spanning more than four decades of data, findings demonstrate that while conventional systems maintain yield advantages in early years, especially during transition to organic, organic systems frequently achieve equal or higher profitability over the long term. Reduced input costs, improved soil fertility, resilience under climatic stress, and organic price premiums are the consistent drivers, but the advantage tracks rotation design rather than certification: organic rotations containing a perennial or forage phase competed with conventional systems even without price premiums, while short annual-only organic rotations did not. Risk analyses indicate that diversified organic systems generally carry lower downside risk than intensive, input-dependent monocultures, though not uniformly lower year-to-year variability. Cumulative economic evidence thus establishes organic agriculture as a financially viable, resilient, and sustainable alternative to conventional farming when analyzed across full production cycles and accounting for risk.
1. Introduction
Organic food is now a $76.6 billion industry in the United States based on 2025 retail sales, while the global farm-gate value of organic crop production reached $42.3 billion in 2022 (Sidemo-Holm et al. 2026). While the United States accounts for ~43% of global organic retail sales, the total cropland dedicated to organic agriculture in the US remains below 1% (4.9 million certified organic acres in 2021, of which 3.6 million are cropland, generating roughly 3% of U.S. farm receipts) with the value of US grown organic crops at only 5% of the world total. This is in contrast to Europe and China that capture 36% and 38% of the worlds organic crop production value, respectively (Sidemo-Holm et al. 2026; Figure 1). U.S. organic sales grew 6.8% in 2025, double the 3.4% growth of the comparable conventional market, and are projected to exceed $100 billion by 2030. This shortage in US organic production has resulted in bottlenecks in the organic industry, especially supply of organic grain that has limited expansion of organic infrastructure and the domestic livestock industries. Industry estimates reported by the USDA indicate that U.S. buyers imported 70–85% of the organic soybeans required to meet domestic livestock-feed demand in 2022 (USDA National Organic Program, 2023).
Soil, economic, and ecological data accumulated over decades from long-term comparison experiments across the United States indicate that organic farming benefits the land, soil health, water quality and quantity, rural communities, and farm-level profits. These trials compare cropping systems that include the standard conventional and standard organic management practices specific to each respective region. Since they have run in most cases for several decades, economic evaluations over long time periods that capture fluctuations in climate, input costs, and commodity markets allow for a robust comparison of the profitability of conventional and organic farming systems. Early studies such as Dabbert and Madden (1986) and Hanson et al. (1990) investigated the transitional economics of converting to organic management. Subsequent multi‑decadal trials have since provided empirical insights into the financial dynamics, risk profiles, and long‑term resilience of organic and conventional farming systems. Considering concerns about human health and environmental degradation related to current farming practices, transitioning more farms to regenerative organic systems that maintain profitability while conserving natural resources should be a critical national strategy.
2. Transitional Dynamics: Early Profitability and Risk
Early economic studies of organic conversion indicate that the transition can impose substantial short-term costs, but the magnitude and duration of those costs depend on yields, rotation design, input requirements, commodity prices, and access to organic markets. Dabbert and Madden (1986) modeled the transition of a Pennsylvania grain farm, showing that net income declined by up to 43% in the first year as synthetic inputs were eliminated and organic fertility inputs and crop rotations were established. However, profitability recovered within four to six years and approached parity (93%) with conventional systems by year six. This study did not consider price premiums for the organically produced grain as an organic marketplace, especially for grain, did not exist at the time. Hanson et al. (1990), using whole‑farm budgeting for a representative Mid‑Atlantic grain farm, reported that while conventional farms averaged $39,193 in annual profit from 1981–1989, low‑input organic farms in transition improved net worth and income stability over time, with cash operating expenses 26% lower and fertilizer and pesticide costs reduced by 95%.
These studies established that biological transition (soil and yield stabilization) typically spans 3–5 years, while economic stabilization can take up to a decade (excluding organic price premiums), depending on management skill, rotation design, and market access. Farmers with low risk tolerance benefited from organic systems’ reduced income variability, despite lower initial yields. It should be noted that these trials along with continued research on organic management combined with new technology developed since these studies were conducted, have informed agronomic management and crop selection during the transition period and further reduced the gap between organic and conventional yields during and after the transition period.
3. Long-Term Economic Comparisons: Empirical Evidence from Major U.S. Trials
The transition studies described above capture only the opening years of a much longer trajectory. Where experiments have been maintained for a decade or more, a consistent pattern emerges; the yield and income penalties of conversion prove temporary, while the soil, agronomic, and financial advantages of organic management compounds over time. Six long-term U.S. experiments spanning the Mid-Atlantic, the Corn Belt, the upper Midwest, and irrigated California now provide the multi-decadal records needed to test that pattern. Each was designed around regionally representative rotations and management practices, and each has been analyzed economically across full weather and commodity price cycles. Taken together, they show organic systems moving from early disadvantage to equal or superior profitability, with lower year-to-year volatility, as soil biological function and rotation diversity mature.
3.1 The Rodale Institute Farming Systems Trial (FST), Pennsylvania (1981-Present)
The Rodale Institute Farming Systems Trial (FST) based in Kutztown, PA, one of the world’s longest continuous agricultural experiments, compares conventional and organic grain systems under common rotations. This trial includes three model grain farm systems – conventional grain rotations standard in the Mid-Atlantic region, an organic farm that grows grain and forage to feed livestock such as dairy which is prevalent in the region, and a low-input system that relies on plant-based fertility only, with no external fertility inputs. Early economic evaluations from the first 22 years (Pimentel et al. 2005; Hanson et al. 1997) provided key insights that were foundational to support the rationale for the development of a USDA backed National Organic Program. Organic corn and soybean yields equaled conventional yields after the fifth year and exceeded them by 28–34% during periods of low rainfall or drought. Fossil energy use was 28–32% lower in organic systems. This is mostly attributed to the energy requirements to manufacture synthetic fertilizers and chemicals while in the organic systems there was an increase in labor and diesel consumption related to weed management. Organic soils stored higher levels of carbon and nitrogen (Drinkwater et al. 1998), reducing the need for off farm fertility inputs and results in higher soil water storage capacity which is mostly likely the reason the organic systems had higher yields during periods of drought (Lotter et al. 2003). Without organic price premiums for organic, net returns for the low-input organic system were only $8 ha⁻¹ below conventional; with a modest 10% premium, organic returns surpassed conventional profits. Additionally, while organic systems showed lower yield, they had lower profit variance, confirming greater resilience to climatological and market fluctuations (Pimentel et al. 2005).
A more recent economic analysis (Pearsons et al. 2023) compared the twelve years following the establishment of reduced tillage treatments in 2008 into the conventional and organic systems. This coincides with the increased adoption of no-till practices across the United States and especially in the Mid-Atlantic region. Field operations, input use, and crop yields from 2008 to 2020 were compiled into enterprise budgets representing 24 model farms of ~134 acres each; the average Pennsylvania farm size over the study period, built as three fields of roughly 44 acres per field allowing cumulative labor, costs, gross revenues, net returns, and economic risk to be compared across all three farming systems under both tilled and reduced-till management. Revenue and net-return comparisons draw on 2008–2013 and 2016–2020. During this 12-year period, corn and wheat yields were comparable between the conventional and organic manure system. Soybean yields were lower in the organic systems. Reducing tillage lowered gross revenues by 10% in the conventional system and by 13% in the low-input organic legume system, but offsetting reductions in annual costs of 4.5% and 6.1%, respectively, left net returns and economic risk essentially unchanged in both. In the more diverse manure-based organic system, which includes periods of mixed perennial cover, reducing tillage affected neither costs, gross revenues, net returns, nor economic risk. Reduced tillage therefore did not alter the long-term profitability of any of the three systems, indicating that continuous living cover and manure-based fertility exert considerably more influence on farm profitability than tillage intensity does. Compared to the previous economic assessments, overall costs were higher in the conventional system due to costs related to fertility, herbicides, and genetically modified seeds. With organic price premiums applied, both organic farms out-earned the conventional farm: gross revenues averaged $102,228 for the legume-based organic system and $124,716 for the manure-based system against $84,807 for conventional, yielding annual net returns of $32,882 and $53,994 respectively against $7,651; indicating more than a sevenfold advantage for the manure-based system. Stripping out premiums separates the two organic systems sharply. Sold entirely at conventional prices, the legume-based system would have run an annual net loss of $12,924, while the manure-based system would still have returned $13,859 per farm against $7,651 for conventional. This study did not consider the value-add of feeding on farm livestock, which would add more revenue stream for organic manure system.
3.2 The Minnesota Variable Input Crop Management Systems (VICMS) Trials (1989–2007)
Located in Lamberton, MN, the Variable Input Crop Management System trials (VICMS) (Porter et al. 2003) evaluated controlled, farm-scale comparisons of 2-year (corn-soybean) or 4-year (corn-soybean-oat/alfalfa-alfalfa) crop rotations that include high or low levels of fertility inputs in the conventional systems or organic inputs (manure) in the organic system. Economic analyses over 18 years (Delbridge et al. 2011; Coulter et al. 2013) revealed that reduced input costs and rotational diversification compensated for a modest yield gap. Across the two parallel trials, organic corn yielded 91-93% and organic soybean 81-84% of the conventional two-year rotation (Porter et al. 2003), with soybean consistently the weaker organic crop. Production costs were lowest in four‑year rotations $409 ha⁻¹ for organic and $405 ha⁻¹ for the chemical-input four-year rotation, compared with $488 ha⁻¹ for the chemical-input two-year corn-soybean rotation. Without organic price premiums, organic annual net returns of $660 ha⁻¹ were statistically indistinguishable from conventional 4‑year rotation net returns ($675 ha⁻¹). With full organic price premiums, organic systems averaged $1,329 ha⁻¹ per annum, roughly double the best-performing conventional rotation. Over the 1992-2007 window analyzed by Coulter et al. (2013), net returns were 88% greater in the organic four-year rotation than in the high-input two-year rotation. Based on an economic risk assessment, the organic system offered higher profits with lower downside risk. The advantage was specific to organic management rather than to reduced inputs generally: over the same period, the low-external-input rotations returned 19% (two-year) and 15% (four-year) less than the high-input two-year system, indicating that cutting purchased inputs without organic certification and manure-based fertility did not pay.
3.3 The Wisconsin Integrated Cropping Systems Trial (WICST, 1989–Present)
Conducted at two southern Wisconsin locations Arlington, on highly productive soils, and the wetter Elkhorn site, the Wisconsin Integrated Cropping Systems Trial (WICST) compares six farming systems ranging from conventional continuous corn, conventional and organic mixed grain crops or mixed grain and forage crops, and continuous rotationally grazed organic pasture. Posner et al. (2008) and Chavas et al. (2009) reported organic corn and soybeans achieved ~90% of conventional yields over 13 years while organic forages produced equal or higher yields. Considering conventional market prices (no organic price premiums), no‑till corn–soy and rotational grazing were most profitable. When organic premiums and government payments were included, returns to the organic grain system (corn-soybean-wheat plus red clover) increased by 85–110%, making it the most profitable system in the trial, while returns in the organic forage system rose 35–40%. In absolute terms, mean returns across both locations under market prices, government programs and organic premiums were $784 ha⁻¹ for the organic grain system and $718 ha⁻¹ for the organic forage system, against $540 ha⁻¹ for continuous corn, $573 ha⁻¹ for no-till corn-soybean and $535 ha⁻¹ for intensive alfalfa, with rotational grazing at $735 ha⁻¹. At Arlington, organic price premiums added $361 ha⁻¹ of revenue to the organic grain rotation and $189 ha⁻¹ to the organic forage rotation. Government payments, by contrast, accrued mainly to the conventional grain systems, raising returns to continuous corn by 50–190%. Accounting for risk did not materially change this ranking, but it did not favor the organic systems either: variance in returns was significantly greater for both organic systems (and for conventional alfalfa) than for the other systems, and the lowest risk premiums belonged to no-till corn-soybean and rotational grazing. At WICST, in other words, organic profitability came with higher year-to-year variability.
3.4 The Iowa Long-Term Agroecological Research (LTAR, 1998 – Present)
Located in Greenfield, Iowa, the Long-Term Agroecological Research (LTAR) experiment compares a standard Midwestern conventional crop rotation of corn and soybean (C-S) to 3- or 4-year organic crop rotations of corn-soybean-oats/alfalfa (C-S-O) or corn-soybean-oats/alfalfa-alfalfa (C-S-O-A). During the first three years of organic transition, no yield differences between systems were observed, with organic corn and soybean at 92% and 99.6% of conventional yields, respectively (Delate & Cambardella 2004). Across the first three years of production (1999–2001), with organic premiums included, the organic rotations returned roughly four times the conventional system: three-year average net returns to management were $73 per acre for C-S, compared with $297 for C-S-O and $299 for C-S-O-A (Delate et al. 2003). After removing price premiums, organic systems were still more profitable, though because labor expenses were higher in the organic system the difference in net returns narrows as labor costs per hour increase. In the trial’s second phase (2002–2010), organic corn and soybean yields were equivalent to those of the conventional corn-soybean rotation, while organic oat and alfalfa yields of 103 bu/acre and 4.4 tons/acre exceeded the Adair County averages of 73 bu/acre and 3.3 tons/acre for the same period (Delate et al. 2013). More recent analysis using crop values and cost estimates from 2011 to 2022, the organic production returned over $400 per acre back to management more than conventional corn-soybean production (Delate & Johanns 2026). This is partly due to organic price premiums and the rising costs of inputs in conventional management but is also a result of improved soil health and nutrient cycling. Organic rotations, which allow the addition of cover crops and manure application, increased microbial biomass, organic matter, and phosphorus and potassium concentrations in the soil.
3.5 The USDA-ARS Farming Systems Project (FSP, 1996 – Present)
Located in Beltsville, MD at the USDA-ARS Beltsville Agricultural Research Center (BARC), this trial has similarities to both the Rodale Institute FST and Iowa State LTAR in that it compares different length crop rotations using both conventional and organic methods and includes a full tillage and no-till comparisons in conventional farming. The five systems comprise a conventional no-till corn-soybean-wheat/soybean rotation, a conventional chisel-till rotation of the same sequence, and organic two-year (corn-soybean), three-year (corn-soybean-wheat) and four- to six-year (corn-soybean-wheat-hay) rotations. Unlike the other trials reviewed here, the organic yield gap at Beltsville narrowed with rotation length but did not close: across nine years, organic corn yielded 41%, 31% and 24% less than conventional chisel-till in the two-, three- and longest rotations respectively, with low nitrogen availability and weed competition as major yield limiting factors, while organic soybean averaged 19% lower and wheat showed no consistent difference between systems (Cavigelli et al. 2008). Profitability nonetheless favored organic management once premiums were applied. For 2000–2005, the cumulative present value of net returns ranged from $3,933 to $5,446 ha⁻¹ across the organic systems against $1,309 to $1,909 ha⁻¹ for the conventional systems (Cavigelli et al. 2009). Extending the analysis to 2006–2014, mean returns were highest in the six-year organic rotation ($858) and lowest in conventional chisel-till ($502), with conventional no-till at $702 and the two- and three-year organic rotations at $585 and $589 (White et al. 2019). The perennial forage phase both raised and stabilized returns, making the extended organic rotation the least economically risky system in the trial.
3.6 The California Sustainable Agriculture Farming Systems Project (SAFS, 1988–2000)
Located at the University of California, Davis, the Sustainable Agriculture Farming Systems (SAFS) project compared conventional, low-input and organic four-year rotations in an irrigated Central Valley vegetable and row-crop system, a markedly different agroecological and market context from the rain-fed Midwestern and Mid-Atlantic grain trials reviewed above. The 11.3-hectare site carried four treatments: conventional, low-input and organic four-year rotations of processing tomato, safflower, corn and bean with a winter grain or legume double-cropped with bean, alongside a conventional two-year tomato-wheat rotation typical of the region. Organic rotations achieved equivalent tomato and corn yields after eight years while reducing nitrogen leaching and pesticide use (Poudel et al. 2001), although nitrogen availability and weed competition depressed organic and low-input yields of the two most nitrogen-demanding crops, tomato and corn, in individual years (Clark et al. 1999).
SAFS economics were dominated by tomato, the highest-value crop in every rotation, and the results diverge from the grain trials in an instructive way. Across the eight-year comparison, production costs for the four main crops averaged 53% higher under organic management, and conventional profits were 25% higher before premiums; once the 44% organic price advantage was applied, the organic system became slightly more profitable than its conventional counterpart. Among the three four-year rotations the organic system was the most profitable, but the most profitable system overall was the conventional two-year tomato-wheat rotation, simply because it grew tomato twice as often. Clark et al. (1999) accordingly cautioned that the organic system’s dependence on price premiums raised questions about its long-term economic viability, a more qualified conclusion than the grain trials support, and one that shows how strongly organic economics turn on rotation composition and on the value of the crops a rotation can accommodate.
4. Conclusions
Across these six long-term trials, crop rotation emerged as a primary determinant of organic farm profitability. Organic systems built around diversified rotations, perennial phases, and recycled fertility were more likely to match or exceed conventional returns, even without organic premiums. Among the five organic systems reporting revenues without accounting for price premiums, those containing a perennial phase either exceeded their conventional benchmark or came within $44 ha⁻¹, whereas annual-only organic rotations returned more than $150 ha⁻¹ less. Beltsville showed a similar pattern: its six-year rotation containing hay outperformed conventional no-till, while the shorter organic rotations did not. Because perenniality and livestock integration frequently co-occurred, future studies should quantify their independent economic contributions. Price premiums enhanced profitability but were not the sole determinant of performance. Crowder and Reganold estimated breakeven premiums of only 5–7%, compared with realized premiums of 29–32%, although net present value declined by 23–27% when premiums were excluded. At Rodale, the manure-based system remained profitable at conventional prices, whereas the legume-based system required premiums. These findings indicate that sound rotation design can reduce premium dependence while allowing premiums to reward the added management and ecosystem services associated with organic production. Diversified organic systems also generally provided greater protection against severe economic losses, although annual returns were not always less variable. Their broader value including improved soil health, nutrient retention, water regulation, and reduced reliance on purchased inputs is not fully captured in farm budgets. The remaining challenges – particularly transitional income pressure, management requirements, and limited organic infrastructure – represent opportunities for targeted investment. Overall, the long-term evidence demonstrates that well-designed organic systems can provide a profitable and resilient pathway for U.S. agriculture. Policies and research that support perennial rotations, crop–livestock integration, recycled fertility, transition assistance, and regional processing infrastructure can help translate this demonstrated potential into broader farm-level adoption and economic stimulus at the county, state, and national level.
References Cited
Baldock, J.O., Hedtcke, J.L., Posner, J.L., & Hall, J.A. (2014). Organic and conventional production systems in the Wisconsin Integrated Cropping Systems Trial: III. Yield trends. Agronomy Journal, 106, 1509–1522.
Cavigelli, M.A., Teasdale, J.R., & Conklin, A.E. (2008). Long-term agronomic performance of organic and conventional field crops in the mid-Atlantic region. Agronomy Journal, 100(3), 785–794.
Cavigelli, M.A., Hima, B.L., Hanson, J.C., Teasdale, J.R., Conklin, A.E., & Lu, Y.-C. (2009). Long-term economic performance of organic and conventional field crops in the mid-Atlantic region. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 24(2), 102–119.
Chavas, J.P., Posner, J.L., & Hedtcke, J.L. (2009). Organic and conventional production systems in Wisconsin Integrated Cropping Systems Trial: II. Economic and risk analysis (1993–2006). Agronomy Journal, 101(2), 288–295.
Clark, S., Klonsky, K., Livingston, P., & Temple, S. (1999). Crop-yield and economic comparisons of organic, low-input, and conventional farming systems in California’s Sacramento Valley. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 14(3), 109–121.
Coulter, J.A., Delbridge, T.A., King, R.P., Allan, D.L., & Sheaffer, C.C. (2013). Productivity, economics, and soil quality in the Minnesota variable‑input cropping systems trial. Crop Management, 12(1).
Crowder, D.W., & Reganold, J.P. (2015). Financial competitiveness of organic agriculture on a global scale. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(24), 7611–7616.
Dabbert, S., & Madden, P. (1986). The transition to organic agriculture: A multi-year simulation model of a Pennsylvania farm. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 1(3), 99–107.
Delate, K., & Cambardella, C.A. (2004). Agroecosystem performance during transition to certified organic grain production. Agronomy Journal, 96(5), 1288–1298.
Delate, K., Duffy, M., Holste, A., & Chase, C. (2003). An economic comparison of organic and conventional grain crops in a long-term agroecological research site in Iowa. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 18(2), 59–69.
Delate, K., Cambardella, C., Chase, C., Johanns, A., & Burcham, R. (2013). The Long-Term Agroecological Research (LTAR) experiment supports organic yields, soil quality, and economic performance in Iowa. Crop Management, 12(1).
Delate, K., Cambardella, C., Chase, C., & Turnbull, R. (2015). A review of long-term organic comparison trials in the U.S. Sustainable Agriculture Research, 4(3), 5–14.
Delate, K., & Johanns, A. (2026). The Long-Term Agroecological Research (LTAR) experiment. Iowa State University Extension bulletin.
Delbridge, T.A., Coulter, J.A., King, R.P., Sheaffer, C.C., & Wyse, D.L. (2011). Economic performance of long-term organic and conventional cropping systems in Minnesota. Agronomy Journal, 103(5), 1372–1382.
Drinkwater, L.E., Wagoner, P., & Sarrantonio, M. (1998). Legume-based cropping systems have reduced carbon and nitrogen losses. Nature, 396(6708), 262–265.
Hanson, J.C., Johnson, D.M., Peters, S.E., & Janke, R.R. (1990). The profitability of sustainable agriculture on a representative grain farm in the Mid‑Atlantic Region. Northeastern Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 19(2), 90–98.
Hanson, J.C., Lichtenberg, E., & Peters, S.E. (1997). Organic versus conventional grain production in the Mid‑Atlantic. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 12(1), 2–9.
Lotter, D.W., Seidel, R., & Liebhardt, W. (2003). The performance of organic and conventional cropping systems in an extreme climate year. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 18(3), 146–154.
Mahoney, P.R., Olson, K.D., Porter, P.M., Huggins, D.R., & Crookston, R.K. (2004). Profitability and risk analysis of organic cropping systems in southwestern Minnesota. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 19(1), 35–46.
Pearsons, K.A., Chase, C., Omondi, E.C., Zinati, G., Smith, A., & Rui, Y. (2023). Reducing tillage does not affect the long-term profitability of organic or conventional field crop systems. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6, 1004256.
Pimentel, D., Hepperly, P., Hanson, J., Douds, D., & Seidel, R. (2005). Environmental, energetic, and economic comparisons of organic and conventional farming systems. BioScience, 55(7), 573–582.
Porter, P.M., Huggins, D.R., Perillo, C.A., Quiring, S.R., & Crookston, R.K. (2003). Organic and other management strategies with two- and four-year crop rotations in Minnesota. Agronomy Journal, 95, 233–244.
Posner, J.L., Baldock, J.O., & Hedtcke, J.L. (2008). Organic and conventional production systems in the Wisconsin Integrated Cropping Systems Trials: I. Productivity 1990–2002. Agronomy Journal, 100, 253–260.
Poudel, D.D., Horwath, W.R., Lanini, W.T., Temple, S.R., & van Bruggen, A.H.C. (2001). Comparison of soil N availability and leaching potential, crop yields and weeds in organic, low‑input and conventional farming systems in northern California. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 90, 125–137.
Sidemo-Holm, W., Miller, C., & Sylla, M. (2026). Global economic valuation of organic agriculture. Research Square preprint (not yet peer reviewed).
USDA National Organic Program. (2023). Organic integrity and market data. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service.
Welsh, R. (1999). The economics of organic grain and soybean production in the Midwestern U.S. Henry A. Wallace Institute for Alternative Agriculture Report.
White, K.E., Cavigelli, M.A., Conklin, A.E., & Rasmann, C. (2019). Economic performance of long-term organic and conventional crop rotations in the mid-Atlantic. Agronomy Journal, 111(3), 1358–1370.